Sunday, July 5, 2009

Hospital

Hospital

A hospital is an institution for health care providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment, and often but not always providing for longer-term patient stays.

Today, hospitals are usually funded by the state, by health organizations, (for profit or non-profit), health insurances or charities, including by direct charitable donations. In history, however, hospitals were often founded and funded by religious orders or charitable individuals and leaders. Similarly, modern-day hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, and nurses, whereas in history, this work was usually done by the founding religious orders or by volunteers

Etymology

During the Middle Ages the hospital could serve other functions, such as almshouse for the poor, hostel for pilgrims, or hospital school. The name comes from Latin hospes (host), which is also the root for the English words hotel, hostel, and hospitality. The modern word hotel derives from the French word hostel, which featured a silent s, eventually removed from the word to leave a circumflex on modern French hôtel. The word is also related to the Sanskrit word 'Ispital' and the German 'Spital'.

Grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. In the U.S., hospital usually requires an article; in Britain and elsewhere, the word is normally used without an article when it is the object of a preposition and when referring to a patient ("in/to the hospital" vs. "in/to hospital"); in Canada, both usages are found.

[edit] Types

Some patients in a hospital come just for diagnosis and/or therapy and then leave ('outpatients'); while others are 'admitted' and stay overnight or for several weeks or months ('inpatients'). Hospitals are usually distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients.

[edit] General

The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which is set up to deal with many kinds of disease and injury, and typically has an emergency department to deal with immediate threats to health and the capacity to dispatch emergency medical services. A general hospital is typically the major health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care; and specialized facilities for surgery, plastic surgery, childbirth, bioassay laboratories, and so forth. Larger cities may have many different hospitals of varying sizes and facilities.

[edit] Specialized
A teaching hospital in Canada

Types of specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories, and so forth.

A hospital may be a single building or a campus. (Many hospitals with pre-20th-century origins began as one building and evolved into campuses.) Some hospitals are affiliated with universities for medical research and the training of medical personnel. Worldwide, most hospitals are run on a non-profit basis by governments or charities. Within the United States, most hospitals are not-for-profit.

[edit] Teaching

A teaching hospital (or university hospital) combines assistance to patients with teaching to medical students and is often linked to a medical school.

[edit] Clinics

A medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and is often run by a government agency for health services or a private partnership of physicians (in nations where private practice is allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.

Departments

Hospitals may have any of the following departments or units:

* Behavioral health services
* Burn unit
* Cancer center
* Cardiology
* Coronary care unit
* Dentistry
o Oral and maxillofacial surgery
* Dermatology
* Dispensary
* Emergency department
o Trauma center
* Gastroenterology
* Intensive care unit
* Internal medicine
o Endocrinology
o Epidemiology
o Immunology
* Laboratory services
* Neurology
* Nursing unit
* Obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN)
o Neonatal intensive care unit
* Orthopedic services
* Outpatient department
* Pathology
* Pediatrics
* Pharmacy
* Plastic surgery
* Psychiatric ward
* Rehabilitation services
* Physical therapy
* Post anesthesia care unit
* Radiology
* Respiratory therapy
* Surgery
* Urgent care
* Urology

Non-medical departments include:

* Medical records department
* Release of information department

History

[edit] Early examples
A physician visiting the sick in a hospital. German engraving from 1682.

In ancient cultures, religion and medicine were linked. The earliest known institutions aiming to provide cure were Egyptian temples. Greek temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius might admit the sick, who would wait for guidance from the god in a dream. The Romans adopted his worship. Under his Roman name Æsculapius, he was provided with a temple (291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in Rome, where similar rites were performed.[1]

The Sinhalese (Sri Lankans) are perhaps responsible for introducing the concept of dedicated hospitals to the world. According to the Mahavamsa, the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty written in the 6th century A.D., King Pandukabhaya (4th century BC) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documentary evidence we have of institutions specifically dedicated to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.[2][3] Mihintale Hospital is perhaps the oldest in the world.[4] Ruins of ancient hospitals in Sri Lanka are still in existence in Mihintale, Anuradhapura and Medirigiriya.[5]

Institutions created specifically to care for the ill also appeared early in India. King Ashoka is said to have founded at least 18 hospitals ca. 230 BC, with physicians and nursing staff, the expense being borne by the royal treasury.[6] Stanley Finger (2001) in his book Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function cites an Ashokan edict translated as: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[7] However Dominik Wujastyk of the University College London disputes this, arguing that the edict indicates that Ashoka built rest houses (for travellers) instead of hospitals, and that this was misinterpreted due to the reference to medical herbs.[8]

The first teaching hospital where students were authorized to methodically practice on patients under the supervision of physicians as part of their education, was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian Empire. One expert has argued that "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia".[9]

[edit] Roman Empire

The Romans created valetudinaria for the care of sick slaves, gladiators and soldiers around 100 BC, and many were identified by later archeology. While their existence is considered proven, there is some doubt as to whether they were as widespread as was once thought, as many were identified only according to the layout of building remains, and not by means of surviving records or finds of medical tools.[10]

The adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the empire drove an expansion of the provision of care. The First Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. urged the Church to provide for the poor, sick, widows and strangers. It ordered the construction of a hospital in every cathedral town. Among the earliest were those built by the physician Saint Sampson in Constantinople and by Basil, bishop of Caesarea. The latter was attached to a monastery and provided lodgings for poor and travelers, as well as treating the sick and infirm. There was a separate section for lepers.[11]

[edit] Medieval Islam
Main article: Bimaristan
Further information: Islamic medicine
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009)

The earliest recorded hospital in the medieval Islamic world was that of al-Walid ibn 'Abdul Malik (ruled 705-715 CE) which he built in 86 AH (706-707 CE). It somewhat resembled the Persian bimaristan and Byzantine nosocomia, but was more general as it extended its services to lepers, invalid and destitute people. All treatment and care was free of charge and there was more than one physician employed in this hospital.[12][verification needed]

In the medieval Islamic world, the word "bimaristan" was used to indicate an establishment where the ill were welcomed and cared for by qualified staff. In this way Muslim physicians distinguished between a hospital and a hospice, assylum, lazaret or leper-house, all of which were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad (insane) from society than offering them a cure. Some thus consider the medieval Bimaristan hospitals as "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word.[13]

The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia. As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice - an early parallel to modern medical schools. [14][15]

Between the eighth and twelfth centuries CE Muslim hospitals developed a high standard of care. Hospitals in Baghdad in the ninth and tenth centuries employed up to twenty-five staff physicians and had separate wards for different conditions. Al-Qairawan hospital and mosque, in Tunisia, were built under the Aghlabid rule in 830 CE and was simple but adequately equipped with halls organized into waiting rooms, a mosque, and a special bath. The hospital employed female nurses, including nurses from Sudan[citation needed]. In addition to regular physicians who attended the sick, there were Fuqaha al-Badan, a kind of religious physio-therapists, group of religious scholars whose medical services included bloodletting, bone setting, and cauterisation. During Ottoman rule, when hospitals reached a particular distinction, Sultan Bayazid II built a psychiatric hospital and medical madrasa in Edirne, and a number of other early hospitals were also built in Turkey. The clerics working in these facilities employed scientific methodology far beyond that of their contemporaries in their treatment of patients.[16]

[edit] Medieval Europe
Hospicio Cabañas was the largest hospital in colonial America. In Guadalajara, Mexico
The church at Les Invalides in France showing the often close connection between historical hospitals and churches.
Cancer Hospital at the University of Florida.

Medieval hospitals in Europe followed a similar pattern to the Byzantine. They were religious communities, with care provided by monks and nuns. (An old French term for hospital is hôtel-Dieu, "hostel of God.") Some were attached to monasteries; others were independent and had their own endowments, usually of property, which provided income for their support. Some hospitals were multi-functional while others were founded for specific purposes such as leper hospitals, or as refuges for the poor or for pilgrims: not all cared for the sick. The first Spanish hospital, founded by the Catholic Visigoth bishop Masona in 580 at Mérida, was a xenodochium designed as an inn for travellers (mostly pilgrims to the shrine of Eulalia of Mérida) as well as a hospital for citizens and local farmers. The hospital's endowment consisted of farms to feed its patients and guests.

[edit] Colonial America

The first hospital founded in the Americas was the Hospital San Nicolás de Bari [Calle Hostos] in Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional Dominican Republic. Fray Nicolas de Ovando, Spanish governor and colonial administrator from 1502-1509, authorized its construction on December 29, 1503. This hospital apparently incorporated a church. The first phase of its construction was completed in 1519, and it was rebuilt in 1552.[17] Abandoned in the mid-18th century, the hospital now lies in ruins near the Cathedral in Santo Domingo.

Conquistador Hernán Cortés founded the two earliest hospitals in North America: the Immaculate Conception Hospital and the Saint Lazarus Hospital. The oldest was the Immaculate Conception, now the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno in Mexico City, founded in 1524 to care for the poor.[17]

The first hospital in North America north of Mexico was the Hôtel-Dieu de Québec. It was established in New France in 1639 by three Augustinians from l'Hôtel-Dieu de Dieppe in France. The project of the niece of Cardinal de Richelieu was granted a royal charter by King Louis XIII and staffed by colonial physician Robert Giffard de Moncel.

[edit] Modern era

In Europe the medieval concept of Christian care evolved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries into a secular one, but it was in the eighteenth century that the modern hospital began to appear, serving only medical needs and staffed with physicians and surgeons. The Charité (founded in Berlin in 1710) is an early example.

Guy's Hospital was founded in London in 1724 from a bequest by wealthy merchant Thomas Guy. Other hospitals sprang up in London and other British cities over the century, many paid for by private subscriptions. In the British American colonies the Pennsylvania General Hospital was chartered in Philadelphia in 1751, after £2,000 from private subscription was matched by funds from the Assembly.[18]

When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784 (instantly becoming the world's largest hospital), physicians acquired a new facility that gradually developed into the most important research center. During the 19th century, the Second Viennese Medical School emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna, being considered as the birth of specialized medicine.[citation needed]

By the mid-nineteenth century most of Europe and the United States had established a variety of public and private hospital systems. In Continental Europe the new hospitals were generally built and run from public funds. The National Health Service, the principle provider of healthcare in the United Kingdom, was founded in 1948.

In the United States the traditional hospital is a non-profit hospital, usually sponsored by a religious denomination. One of the earliest of these "almshouses" in what would become the United States was started by William Penn in Philadelphia in 1713. These hospitals are tax-exempt due to their charitable purpose, but provide only a minimum of charitable medical care. They are supplemented by large public hospitals in major cities and research hospitals often affiliated with a medical school. The largest public hospital system in America is the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, which includes Bellevue Hospital, the oldest U.S. hospital, affiliated with New York University Medical School. In the late twentieth century, chains of for-profit hospitals arose in the USA.

[edit] Criticism

While hospitals, by concentrating equipment, skilled staff and other resources in one place, clearly provide important help to patients with serious or rare health problems, hospitals are also criticised for a number of faults, some of which are endemic to the system, others which develop from what some consider wrong approaches to health care.

One criticism often voiced is the 'industrialised' nature of care, with constantly shifting treatment staff, which dehumanises the patient and prevents more effective care as doctors and nurses are rarely intimately familiar with the patient. The high working pressures often put on the staff exacerbate such rushed and impersonal treatment. The architecture and setup of modern hospitals is often voiced as a contributing factor to the feelings of faceless treatment many people complain about.[19]

Another criticism is that hospitals are in themselves a dangerous place for patients, who are often suffering from weakened immune systems - either due to their body having to undergo substantial surgery or because of the illness which placed them in the hospital itself. Most of these criticisms stem from the pre-Listerian era. However, even in modern hospitals, hospital acquired infections can be an important cause of hospital related morbidity, and sometimes mortality.

[edit] Funding

In the modern era, hospitals are, broadly, either funded by the government of the country in which they are situated, or survive financially by competing in the private sector (a number of hospitals are also still supported by the historical type of charitable or religious associations).

In the United Kingdom for example, a relatively comprehensive, "free at the point of delivery" health care system exists, funded by the state. Hospital care is thus relatively easily available to all legal residents (although as hospitals prioritize their limited resources, there is a tendency for 'waiting lists' for non-emergency treatment in countries with such systems, and those who can afford it often take out private health care to get treatment faster).[20] On the other hand, many countries, including for example the USA, have in the 20th Century followed a largely private-based, for-profit-approach to providing hospital care, with few state-money supported 'charity' hospitals remaining today.[21] Where for-profit hospitals in such countries admit uninsured patients in emergency situations (such as during and after the Hurricane Katrina in the USA), they incur direct financial losses,[21] ensuring that there is a clear disincentive to admit such patients.

While for-profit-based systems have produced some of the best hospitals in the world, a proportion of the populace may have little or no access to health care services of adequate quality.[citation needed]

As quality of health care has increasingly become an issue around the world, hospitals have increasingly had to pay serious attention to this. Independent external assessment of quality is one of the most powerful ways of assessing the quality of health care, and hospital accreditation is one means by which this is achieved. In many parts of the world such accreditation is sourced from other countries, a phenomenon known as international health care accreditation, by groups such as Accreditation Canada from Canada, the Joint Commission from the USA, the Trent Accreditation Scheme from Great Britain, and Haute Authorité de santé (HAS) from France.

[edit] Buildings
The National Health Service Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital in the UK, showing the utilitarian architecture of many modern hospitals.

[edit] Architecture

Modern hospital buildings are designed to minimize the effort of medical personnel and the possibility of contamination while maximizing the efficiency of the whole system. Travel time for personnel within the hospital and the transportation of patients between units is facilitated and minimized. The building also should be built to accommodate heavy departments such as radiology and operating rooms while space for special wiring, plumbing, and waste disposal must be allowed for in the design.

However, the reality is that many hospitals, even those considered 'modern', are the product of continual and often badly managed growth over decades or even centuries, with utilitarian new sections added on as needs and finances dictate. As a result, Dutch architectural historian Cor Wagenaar has called many hospitals:

"... built catastrophes, anonymous institutional complexes run by vast bureaucracies, and totally unfit for the purpose they have been designed for ... They are hardly ever functional, and instead of making patients feel at home, they produce stress and anxiety."[22]

Some newer hospital designs now try to reestablish design that takes the patient's psychological needs into account, such as providing for more air, better views, and more pleasant color schemes. These ideas hearken back to the late 18th century, when the concept of providing fresh air and access to the 'healing powers of nature' were first employed by hospital architects in improving their buildings.[22]

Another major change which is still ongoing in many parts of the world is the change from a ward-based system (where patients are treated and accommodated in communal rooms, separated at best by movable partitions) to a room-based environment, where patients are accommodated in private rooms. The ward-based system has been described as very efficient, especially for the medical staff, but is considered to be more stressful for patients and detrimental to their privacy. A major constraint on providing all patients with their own rooms is however found in the higher cost of building and operating such a hospital, which causes some hospitals to charge for the privilege of private rooms.[23]

MICHEL JACKSON

Michael Jackson
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For other persons named Michael Jackson, see Michael Jackson (disambiguation).
Semi-protected
Michael Jackson
Michael Jackson in 1984
Michael Jackson in 1984
Background information
Birth name Michael Joseph Jackson
Born August 29, 1958(1958-08-29)
Gary, Indiana, United States
Died June 25, 2009 (aged 50)
Westwood, Los Angeles, California, United States
Genre(s) Pop, R&B, rock, soul
Occupation(s) Singer-songwriter, record producer, musical arranger, dancer, choreographer, actor, author, businessman, financier, inventor
Instrument(s) Vocals, multiple instruments, percussion
Voice type(s) Falsetto[1]
Years active 1964–2009
Label(s) Motown, Epic
Associated acts The Jackson 5/The Jacksons
Website MichaelJackson.com

Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American recording artist, entertainer and businessman. The seventh child of the Jackson family, he made his debut as an entertainer in 1968 as a member of The Jackson 5. He then began a solo career in 1971 while still a member of the group, and that successful career led to him being dubbed the "King of Pop"[2] in subsequent years. Jackson's 1982 album Thriller remains the world's best-selling album of all time,[3] and four of his other solo studio albums are among the world's best-selling records: Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991) and HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995).

In the early 1980s, he became a dominant figure in American popular music and culture. He was the first African American entertainer to amass a strong crossover following on MTV, with videos such as "Beat It", "Billie Jean" and "Thriller"—widely credited with transforming the music video from a promotional tool into an art form—bringing fame to the relatively new channel. Videos such as "Black or White" and "Scream" made Jackson an enduring staple on MTV well into the 1990s. Beyond his success on television, Jackson popularized a number of physically complicated dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk, with his elaborate stage performances. His distinctive musical sound and vocal style influenced many hip hop, pop music and contemporary R&B artists across several generations.

Jackson donated and raised millions of dollars for beneficial causes through his Heal the World Foundation, charity singles, and support of 39 charities. Other aspects of his personal life, including his often changing appearances and eccentric behavior, generated significant controversy that damaged his public image. Though he was accused of child sexual abuse in 1993, the criminal investigation was closed due to lack of evidence and Jackson was not charged. The singer had experienced health concerns since the early 1990s along with conflicting reports regarding the state of his finances since the late 1990s. Jackson married twice and fathered three children, actions which caused further controversy. In 2005, Jackson was tried and acquitted of different sexual abuse allegations and several other charges.

One of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, his other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records—including one for "Most Successful Entertainer of All Time"—thirteen Grammy Awards, thirteen number one singles in his solo career, and the sale of 750 million records worldwide.[4] At the time of his death, Jackson was preparing for This Is It, a series of 50 concerts that would have been held at The O2 arena in London, beginning July 13, 2009.[5]

sejarah keperawatan

BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
LATAR BELAKANG
Sejarah perkembangankeperawatan didunia dapat diawali pertama, sejak manusia itu di ciptakan. Diman dasarnya manusia diciptakan memiliki naluri untuk merawat diri sendiri sebagaimana yang dicerminkan pada seorang ibu. Naluri yang sederhana adalah memelihara kesehatan dalam hal ini adalah menyusui anaknya sehingga harapan pada awal perkembangan keperawatan, perawat harus memiliki naluri keibuan kemudian bergeser kezaman purba diman zaman ini orang masih percaya pada suatu tantangan adanya kekuatan mistis yang dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia, kepercayaan ini di kenal dengan nama anisme, diman seseorang yang sakit dapat disebabkan karma kekuatan alam atau pengaruh kekuatan gaib sehingga timbul keyakinan bahwa jiwa yang jahat akan dapat menimbulkan kesakitan dan jiwa yang sehat dapat menimbulkan keasehatan atau kesejahteraan. Pada saat itu peran perawat sebagai ibu yang merawat keluarga yang sakit dengan memberian perawat fisik serta mengobati penyakit dengan menghilangkan pengaruh jahat. Kemudian dilanjutkan dengan kepercayaan dewa-dewa dimana pada masa itu penyakit dianggap disebabkan karena kemarahan dewa sehingga kuil kuil didirikan sebagai tempat pemujaan dan orang yang meminta kesembuhan di kuil tersebut dengan bantuan priest physician.setelah itu perkembangn keperawatan terus berubah dengan berubahnya zaman






BAB II
PEMBAHASAN
1.SEJARAH PERKEMBANGAN KEPERAWATAN ZAMAN KUNO
Keperawatan lahir sejak naluriah keperawatan lahir bersamaan dengan penciptaan manusia perkembangan keperawatan dipengaruhi dengan semakin maju peradaban manusia maka semakin berkembang keperawatan
Perkembangan dipengaruhi oleh :Perawatan dan pengobatan zaman purba Orang-orang pada zaman dahulu hidup dalam keadaan primitive.Namun demikian mereka sudah mampu sedikit pengetahuan dan kecakapan dalam merawat atau mengobati. Pekerjaan "merawat" dikerjakan berdasarkan naluri (instink) à naluri binatang à "mother instinct" (naluri keibuan) yang merupakan suatu naluri dalam yang bersendi pada pemeliharaan jenis (melindungi anak, merawat orang lemah)
Perawatan Dan Pengobatan Secara Praktis Telah Dilakukan Oleh Orang-Orang Primitive, Misalnya :
a. Merawat dan mengobati luka-luka
b.Menurunkan panas dengan memberikan air minum yang banyak atauperawatannya dengan menggunakan air (kompres)
c. Membuka absoes dengan menggunakan batu-batu tajam
d. Menhentikan pendarahan dengan menggunakan batu-batu panas
e. Pemakaian tumbuh-tumbuhan sebagai pengobatan penyakit
Pengaruh kepercayaan terhadap perawatan dan pengobatan Manusia zaman purba menganut kepercayaan/agama "animisme" menghubungkan terjadinya penyakit dnegan kepercayaan animisme ini, sehingga mereka beranggapan bahwa orang menderita sakit disebabkan karena kemasukan arwah-arwah (roh-roh) itu. Orang-orang yang menaruh perhatian terhadap tanda-tanda penyakit orang "ahli" dalam mengambil tindakan pengobatan terhadap orang sakit. Orang ahli tersebut kemudiajn disebut ahli obat-obatan = dukun dalam pengobatannya dukun antara lain memperhatikan aturan-aturan sebagai berikut :

A. Ajaran alam
Suatu kepercayaan yang menganjurkan bahwa alam sendiri memberikan petunjuk-petunjuk tentang obat yang akan dipakai misalnya Luka yang berdarah di beri balutan atau kain yang berwarna merah/daun merah. Apabila sakit kuning di beri obat minum dari akar-akaran atau kulit tumbuhan berwarna kuning.
B. Ajaran transmigrasi
Suatu ajaran yang mempercayai akan adanya kekeuatanm daya pemindahan. Misal : Pada waktu seorang wanita akan melahirkan, diberi air rendaman daun dan membuka lebar-lebar semua pintu
Perawatan Pada Beberapa Bangsa Dan Negara
A. Mesir
Bangsa mesir pada zaman purba telah menyembah banyak dewa. Dewa yang terkenal antara lain Isis. Mereka beranggapan bahwa dewa ini menaruh minat terhadap orang sakit dan memberikan pertolongan pada waktu si sakit sedang tidur.Didirikanlah kuil yang merupakan rumah sakit pertama di mesirKetabiban
Ilmu ketabiban terutama ilmu bedah telah dikenal oleh bangsa mesir zaman purba (± 4800 SM). Dalam menjalankan tugasnya sebagai tabib ia menggunakan bidai (spalk), alat-alat pembalut, ia mempunyai pengetahuan tentang anatomi, Hygienr umum serta tentang obat-obatan. Didalam buku-buku tertulis dalam kitab Papyrus didalamnya memuat kurang lebih 700 macam resep obat-obatan dari Mesir

B. Babylon dan syiria
Ilmu pengetahuan tentang anatomi dan obat-obat ramuan telah diketahui oleh bangsa Babylon sejak beberapa abad SM. Pada salah satu tulisan yang menyatakan bahwa pada 680 SM orang telah mengetahui cara menahan darah yang keluar dari hidung dan merawat jerawant pada muka.Bangsa Babylon menyembah dewa oleh karena itu perawatan atau pengobatan berdasarkan kepercayaan tersebut.

C. Yahudi kuno
Ilmu pengetahuan bangsa Yahudi banyak di peroleh dari bangsa Mesir. Misalnya : cara-cara memberi pengobatan orang yang terkenal adalah Musa. Ia juga dikenal sebagai seorang ahli hygiene. Dibawah pimpinannya bangsa Yahgudi memajukan minatnya yang besar terhadap kebersihan umum dan kebersihan diri.
Undang-undang kesehatan bangsa Yahudi menjadi dasar bagi hygiene modern dimana cara-cara dan peraturannya sesuai dengan bakteriologi zaman sekarang, misalnya :
1. Pemeriksaan dan peminilah bahan makanan yang akan di makan
2. Mengadakan cara pembuangan kotoran manusia
3. Pelarangan makan daging babi karena dapat menimbulkan suatu penyakit
4. Memberitahukan kepada yang berwajib bila ada penyakit yang berbahaya, sehingga dapat diambil tindakan

D. India
Bangsa India (Hindu) di zaman purba telah memeluk agama Brahmana, disamping memuja dan meminta pertolongan kepada dewa (dikuil) untuk menyembuhkan orang sakit. Di India telah terdapat RS khususnya di Utara saat pemerintahan Rasa Asoka, ± 8 RS dimana sebagian kemudian dijadikan sekolah-sekolah pengobatan dan perawatan




E. Tiongkok
Bangsa Tiongkok telah mengenal penyakit kelamin diantaranya gonorhoea dan syphilis. Pencacaran juga telah dilakukan sejak 1000 SM ilmu urut dan psikoterapi.
Orang-orang yang terkenal dalam ketabiban :
1) Seng Lung
Dikenal sebagai "Bapak Pengobatan, yang ahli penyakit dalam dan telah menggunakan obat-obat dari tumbuh-tumbuhan dan mineral (garam-garaman). Semboyannya yang terkenal adalah Lihat, Dengar, Tanya, Rasa.
2) Chang Chung Ching ± 200 Sm telah mengerjakan lavement dengan menggunakan bambo.

F. Yunani
Bangsa Yunani zaman purba memuja dan memuliakan banyak dewa (polytheisme) dewa yang terkenal adalah dewa yang dianggap sebagai dewa pengobatan putri dan dewa yang bernama hygiene sebagai Dewi kesehatan, maka timbullah perkataan higyene. Untuk pemujaan terhadap para dewa didirikan kuil (1134 SM) yang juga berfungsi sebagai pengobatan orang sakit dan perawatan dikerjakan oleh para budak-budak.
Orang-orang ternama dalam ketabiban antara lain

1. Hippocrates (hidup ± 400 SM) à bapak pengobatan dengan jasa :
- Dasar cara pengobatan sampai sekarang ini
- Penyakit bukan karena setan, melainkan rusaknya undang-undang alam
- Mengembangkan tehnik pemeriksaan badan
- Mengajarkan tentang makanan si sakit
- Menganjurkan supaya penderita sakit jiwa dirawat secara perikemanusiaan
- Mengajarkan tentang semangat pekerjaan, menghargai teman sejawat, , bertanggung
jawab terhadap si sakit yang menjadi sumpah hypocrates
2. Plato
ahli filsafat Yunani, otak sebagai pusat kesadaran

3. Aristoteles
Ahli filsafat, ahli jiwa dan ilmu haya

G. Roma
Rumah sakit Roma zaman purba di sebut valentrumdinari Roma yang terdapat di swiss ditemukan alat-alat perawatan ex. Peralatan untuk huknah pot-pot tempat selep. Juga ditemukan instrument untuk keperluan pembedahan ex : pisau, pincet, klem arteri, speculum. Tokoh terkenal Julius Caesar (101-44 SM). Seorang wali Negara yang pertama-tama mengakui guru-guru hygiene dan menganjurkan tentang kesehatan dan kebersihan

H. Irlandia
Pengetahuan tentang pengobatan telah diketahui lama SM. Tentang Rumah sakit, Seorang putri raja bernama Macha (abad ke 3) mendirikan rumah sakit untuk orang-orang miskin yang sakit. Nama RS tersebut Broin Beargh àtau rumah kesusahan

I. Amerika
Rumah sakit sederhana telah didirikan dikota besar oleh bangsa Asteken di Amerika Utara, sedang RS yang baik dan merupakan RS pertama didirikan pada tahun 1521 oleh cortez dari Mexico yaitu RS san Jesu Nazareno

2. PERKEMBANGAN PERAWATAN ZAMAN PERMULAAN MASEHI
Nabi Isa lahir "Agama Baru" agama masehi (Nasrasni/Kristen) perkembangan perawatan bercorak keagamaan ajaran kasih sayang terhadap sesama manusia (perhatian dan perawatan terhadap orang kesusahan – keadaan sakit)
Permulaan diakones
Diakones pembantu pendeta dalam gereja, memberi nasehat, mengobati orang sakit serta mengunjungi tempat tawanan. Diakones menjadi satu lembaga wanita yang pertama dari organisasi agama Kristen yang bekerja dan mengembangkan pekerjaan perawatan perawat penunjang rumah yang pertama.

Philantrop
Philantrop laki-laki dan wanita yang menjauhkan diri dari keramaian dunia dan berkumpul dalam satu tempat-monastic (laki-laki = monk; wanita = non)

3 wanita yang berjasa Morcella, Febicla, Paula Permulaan rumah sakit.
Agama Kristen berkembang di Roma, zaman pemerintahan constantyn yang agung (tahun 325). Mendirikan bangunan/tempat khusus untuk menampung orang terlantar orang sakit yang memerlukan pertolongan dan perawatan xenodocheian = rumah tahu (xeno = tamu) dalam bahasan latin tamu; hospes "Hospital"/rumah sakit

Monastic hospital
Adalah gabungan antara hospital/xenodochoion dnegan monastery. Disini orang yang sakit dirawat oleh non (wanita) dimana monastic hospital yang terkenal didirikan pada tahun 559, mempunyai kurang lebih 200 non. Bentuk dari monastic hospital :
- Bangsal untuk merawat orang sakit
- Bangunan untuk orang yang perlu pertolonga, orang cacat, miskin, yatim piatu
- Bangunan tempat tabib dan tempat monk-monk dan non
- Pekerjaan perawatan dikerjakan oleh non-non

B. Penyebaran agama
Pada permulaan masehi terjadi penyebaran agama kristen di Eropa. Hal ini berdampak positif terhadap perkembangan keperawatan. Kemajuan ini terlihat pada zaman pemerintahan Lord Constandne yaitu dengan :
• XENODHOECIN atau HOSPES (penampungan orang yang membutuhkan pertolongan terutama orang yang menderita sakit)
• Mendirikan Rumah Sakit terkenal di Roma Yaitu MONASTIC HOSPITAL
• Pada pertengahan abad VI Masehi di Asia Barat Daya-Timur Tengah terjadi
penyebaran agama Islam. Nabi Muhammad SAW menyebarkan agama Islam abd VII
Masehi yang mencakup Afrika, Asia Tenggara, Asia Barat dan sebagian Eropa yaitu
Spanyol dan Turki.
• Pada waktu itu berkembang ilmu pengetahuan : Ilmu pasti, ilmu kimia, ilmu hygiene dan obat-obatan

Kegiatan pelayanan keperawatan berkualitas telah di mulai sejak seorang perawat muslim pertama yaitu Rufaidah pada zaman Nabi Muhammad SAW, yang selalu berusaha memberikan pelayanan terbaiknya bagi yang membutuhkan tanpa membedakan kliennya kaya atau miskin
Berikut ini akan lebih dijelaskan tentang sejarah perkembangan keperawatan dimasa Islam dan di Arab Saudi khususnya :

1. Masa Penyebaran Islam/the Islamic period (570-632)
Perkembangan keperawatan masa ini, sejalan dengan perang kaum muslimin/Jihad (holy wars), memberikan gambaran keperawatan di masa ini. System kedokteran mengenai pengobatan lebih dilakukan dnegan ke rumah pasien dengan diberikannya resep oleh dokter. Dalam periode ini dikenal seorang perawat yang bersama Nabi Muhammad SAW yaitu Rufaidah binti Sa'ad / Rufaidah Al-Asamiya

2. Masa setelah nabi/post-prophetic era (632-1000M)
Sejarah tentang keperawatan setelah wafatnya Nabi Muhammad SAW jarang sekali. Dokumen yang ada lebih didominasi oleh kedokteran dimasa itu. Dr. Al-Razi yang digambarkan sebagai seorang pendidik, dan menjadi pedoman yang juga menyediakan pelayanan keperawatan. Dia menulis dua karangan tentang "The reason why some persons and the common people leave a physician even if he is clever" dan "A clever physician does not have power to heal all diseases, for that is not within the realm of possibility". Dimasa ini ada perawat diberi nama "Al Asiyah"

3. Masa Late to Middle Ages (1000-1500 M)
Dimasa ini Negara-negara Arab membangun RS dengan baik dan mengenalkan perawatan orang sakit. Ada gambaran unik di RS yang tersebar dalam peradaban Islam dan banyak dianut5 RS modern saat ini hingga sekarang, yaitu pemisahan antara ruang pasien laki-laki dan wanita, serta perawat wanita merawat pasien wanita dan perawat laki-laki, hanya merawat pasien laki-laki

C. Perang
• Adanya perang berdampak positif bagi keperawatan oleh karena banyaknya korban perang maka kebutuhan tenaga perawat sangat tinggi.
• Perang salib Banyaknya sukarelawan dijadikan perawat yang terdiri orde-orde agama, para wanita yang mengikuti suami ke medan perang. Pengaruh perang salib terhadap keperawtan adalah mulai dikenal konsep P3K. keberadaan perawat mulai dibutuhkan dalam ketentraman dan timbul peluang kerja bagi perawat dibidang sosial.

1. Hotel Dieu Di Lion
Perawat diambil dari mantan wanita jalanan atau wanita yang telah bertaubat
2. Hotel Dieu di Paris
Perawat diambil dari orde-orde agama sesudah revolusi perancis orde agama dihapuskan dan pekerjaan perawat digantikan oleh orang-orang bebas yang tidak terikat pada agama. Pelopor perawat yang terkenal di rumah sakit ini adalah GENEVIEVE BOUZUET
2. ST. Thomas Hospital
Didirikan pada tahun 1123 M, dirumah sakit inilah FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE memulai karirnya memperbaharui keperawatan.Pada awal abad XIX reformasi sosial masyarakat merubah peran perawat dan wanita secara umum. Perawat mulai dipercaya banyak orang. Contohnya adalah FLORENCE Nightingale yang menjadi pelopor keperawatan dunia.
Florencen Nightingale Lahir tahun 1820 dari keluarga kaya raya dan terhormat meniti karirnya dirumah skait ST. Thomas Hospital ditentang keras oleh keluarganya. Ia diterima mengikuti kursus pendidikan perawat pada usia 31 tahun. Ditunjuk oleh pemerintahan inggris untuk menata asuhan keperawatan rumah sakit militer di turki memberi peluang baginya untuk meraih prestasi (Taylor. C, 1989) Sesudah perang krim Florence nightingale kembali ke Inggris mempelopori berdirinya sekolah-sekolah perawat modern tahun 1840 Kontribusi Florence Nightingale
a. Menetapkan standar manajemen rumah sakit
b. Menegaskan bahwa nutrisi merupakan bagian penting dari asuhan keperawtan
c. Meyakinkan bahwa akupasional merupakan suatu terapi bagi orang sakit
d. Mengidentifikasi kebutuhan personal pasien dan peran perawat untuk
memenuhinya
e. Mengemdbangkan standar okupasi bagi pasien wanita
f. Mengembangkan pendidikan keperawatan
g. Menetapkan 2 komponen keperawatan yaitu kesehatan dan penyakit
h. Meyakinkan bahwa keperawatan berdiri sendiri dan berbeda dnegan rofesi
kedokteran.
i. Menekankan kebutuhan pendidikan lanjut bagi perawat

Tahun 1962-sekarang
Keperawatan mulai berkembang dengan pesat Tahun 1962 mulai banyak berdiri akademi keperawatan (AKPER) tahun 1985 program studi ilmu keperawatan (PSIK) diselenggarakan oleh fakultas kedokteran universitas Indonesia lulusan I tahun 1988
Dampak : Meningkatkan pelayanan keperawatan, pendekatan proses keperawatan dan meningkatkan peran dan fungsi perawat.

3.SEJARAH PERKEMBANGAN KEPERAWATAN DI INDONESIA
Perawatan sudah dilaksanakan sejak adanya manusia dan yang jadi sasarannya adalah manusia dari sejak lahir sampai dengan datangnya kematian. Di Indonesia pekerjaan perawat dikerjakan berdasarkan naluri perasaan keibuan untuk merawat anak-anaknya (Mother Instinct). Sejarah perkembangan keperawatan di Indonesia telah banyak di pengaruhi oleh penjajah diantaranya Jepang,Belanda,dan Inggris.Dalam perkembangan di Indonesia di bagi menjadi beberapa bagian diantaranya:

Zaman Kuno
 Seperti juga di Negara-negara lainnya keperawatan diserahkan kepada perempuan yang merawat keluarganya
 Penyakit dianggap perbuatan setan yaitu dukun
 Cara pengobatan dengan menggunakan daun-daunan

Zaman penjajahan Belanda
 Tahun 1596 Cornelis De Houtman adalah orang Belanda pertama yang datang ke Indonesia pada zaman penjajahan.
 Zaman VOC, (1602 – 1799)
Orang-orang Belanda datang ke Indonesia pertama kali dengan maksud untuk berdagang. Dalam usaha perdagangannya itu di bentuklah VOC. Sehubungan dengan adanya staf dan tentara maka dua usaha kesehatan. Untuk itu didirikanlah rumah sakit yang pertama yang bernama " Binnen Hospital " didirikan pada tahun 1641 bertempat di Batavia ( sekarang Jakarta) Tenaga perawatannya diambil dari penduduk pribumi ( Bumi Putera ) yang diberi nama Zieken oppaser ( penjaga orang sakit) Rumah sakit ini dibawah pengawasan dokter militer. Pada tahun 1724-1744) di luar kota didirikan rumah sakit yang kedua yang diberi nama : Buiten Hospital mengantikan Binnen Hospital yang di tutup pada tahun1808. Karena VOC dibubarkan 1799 maka oleh pemerintahan Belanda menyerahkan kepada pemerintah Indonesia yang kemuudian membentuk Organisasi Negara " Hindia Belanda". Pada tahun zaman penjajahan belanda I ( 1799-1811 ) tidak ada usaha kesehatan yang boleh dikatakan menonjol pada umumnya merupakan usaha lanjutan dari apa yang telah ada. Pengaruh kententaraan pada keperawatan mulai ada usaha-usaha dibidang kesehatan yang antara lain

 MGD ( Militaire Gezondsheids Dienst ) - dinas kesehatan tentara
 BGD (Burgerlije Gezon Dienst ) – dinas kesehatan rakyat,

Pada waktu pemerintahan Daendels yang terkenal dengan pembuatan jalan Merak Banyuwangi, perlu lebih meningkatkan kesehatan tentaranya. Dibuatlah beberapa Rumah sakit Garnizoen, yaitu di Semarang dan Surabaya. Pelayanannya hanya memperhatikan dinas kesehatan tentara saja.



Zaman Penjajahan Inggris Tahun 1811-1816
Gubernur Jenderal Raffles sangat memperhatikan kesehatan rakyat. Usaha-usaha di bidang kesehatan tersebut dinyatakan dalam kata-katanya "kesehatan adalah milik manusia". Usaha-usahanya:
a. Mengadakan vaksinasi umum
b. Memperbaiki perawatan orang sakit gila (jiwa)
c. Memperbaiki perawatan dari orang-orang tahanan.

Zaman Penjajahan Belanda II (1816-1942)
Setelah pemerintahan diserahkan kembali pada Belanda, maka usaha-usaha kesehatan nampak maju. Prof. Dr. Reinwardt menyusun undang-undang kesehatan, diantaranya tentang praktek dokter, kebidanan, pengobatan dan lain-lain untuk wilayah sekitar Batavia pada 1819 oleh Residen V Pabst didirikan rumah sakit untuk umum di Jakarta, diantara rumah sakit Stadsverban di Glodok. Rumah sakit ini mempunyai perlengkapan yang sederhana. Pada tahun 1919 rumah sakit Stadsverban menjadi CBZ (Central Burgerlijke Ziekeninrichting) yangkemudian dipindahkan di Salemba.
Dr. W. de bosch yang sangat menaruh perhatian terhadap kesehatan mendirikan sekolah dokter jawa (1852), yang kemudian berkembang menjadi STOVIA (1898) dan akhirnya GHS (1927). Ia juga mengadakan persiapan pendidikan kebidanan pada tahun 1852. Tahun 1875 pendidikan kebidanan ini ditutup kembali.Rumah-rumah sakit partikelir(swasta) diadakan oleh Zending.
Muhammadiyah,bala keselamatan. Salah satu yang terkenal adalah rumah sakit di Gang Paal yang sekarang menjadi Rumah Sakit Cikini, didirikan pada tahun 1879. rumah skit yang lain ialah: RS St Carolus di Jakarta, RS St Borromeus di Bandung dan RS Elizabeth di Semarang. Pendidikan perawatan telah ada yang dimulai di RS cikini pada tahun 1900. Pendidikan juru rawat dimulai pada tahun 1906 di RS Glodok pad tahun 1912.

Zaman Penjajahan Jepang (1942-1945)
Pada zaman penjajahan jepang keperawatan di Indonesia boleh dikatakan mundur. Pimpinan rumah sakit yang tadinya adalah orang-orang belanda di ambil alih orang-orang jepang dan sebagian oleh bangsa Indonesia. Obat-obatan sangat kurang,oleh karenanya wabah penyakit dimana-mana. Bahan-bahan balutan sangat kurang,sampai dipergunakannya daun pisang dan pelapah pisang.

Zaman Kemerdekaan (1945-1961)
Keadaan rumah sakit dan perawatan mengalami kekurangan-kekurangan terutama obat-obatan. Semwnjak tahun 1949 pemerintahan mulai membangun dan menyusun kenbali perbaikan-perbaikan di lapangankesehatan.

Tahun 1962- sekarang
Perawatan mulai berkenbang dengan pesat,dengan didirikannya pendidikan akademi keperawatan (AKPER) dan pada tahun 1962 dan Program Studi Ilmu keperawatan (PSIK) Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonsia di Jakarta (1985),yang membawa dampak positif terhadap pelayanan perawatan. Pendekatan perawatan menggunakan proses perawatan yang berdasarkan pada kebutuhan manusia seutuhnya.

Perawatan Penyakit jiwa di Indonesia.
Perawatan penyakit jiwa di Indonesia tidak sama. Ada yang dirawat dengan lemah lembut,ada juga yang secara kasar. Ini tergantung dari kemajuan rakyat di tiap daerah. Perawatan tidak dikerjaan di rumah sakit tetapi di luar rumah sakit,disebabkan belum ada keinsyafan dan pengertain rakyat tentang penyakit jiwa. Baru pada tahun 1800 para penderita penyakit jiwa dikumpulkan di bangsal-bangsal tetapi perawatannya bersifat penjagaan saja.
Rumah-rumah sakit jiwa baru didirikan pada tahun 1875 di Cilendek,Bogor yang merupakan rumah sakit jiwa yang pertama di Indonesia dengan kapasitas 400. Rumah sakit jiwa yang kedua ialah rumah sakit jiwa di Lawang didirikan pada tahun 1894 yang sekarang terdiri dari sumber porong,Pasuruan,Sumpyuh,sehingga merupakan rumah sakit jiwa yang terbesar di Asia Tenggara dengan kapasitas 3300. Rumah sakit jiwa ke 3 ialah yang berada di magelang,didirikan pada tahun 1923 dengan kapasitas 1400.Yang lainnya didirikan di Grogol Jakarta.Padang,Palembang,Banjarmasing,Menado,yang masing-masing dngan kapasitas 1.k.60 Perawatan dikerjakan oleh juru rawat-juru rawat dan penjaga orang sakit dibawah pengawasan perawat jiwa bangsa Indonesia.
Pendidikan perawat jiwa baru dibuka pada bulan September 1940 di Cilendek,Bogor. Pendidikan ini berupa "Kursus".Pada mulanya yang diterima hanya orang-orang Belanda dan Indo Belanda;pada tahun 1951 dibuka kursus untuk perawat-perawat bangsa Indonesia.Yang mengikuti banyak yang berasal dari luar Jawa,misalnya : Sumatra,Kalimantan da sebagainya.

Saat ini perawatan penyakit jiwa dikerjakan secara modern dan tidak lagi ditempatkan dalam kamar tertutup,akan tetapi dibangsal-bangsal bebas.Mereka mendapat kebebasan,dihibur dan dapat bergaul dengan sopan sehingga akhirnya insyaf dan sadar.

Pengobatan dengan jalan diberi shock atau dikagetkan.Pada Zaman pertengahan dengan cara ditakut-takuti atau dijatuhkan kedalam sumur.Juga dipergunakan Hydro-therapie dengan menggunakan air panas atau air dingin. Pengobatan semacam ini hingga sekarang masih dilakukan.

Pada zaman modern sekarang pengobatan dilakukan dengan menggunakan obat-obat tidur,dihibur dengan musik,olahraga,berdansa dan lain-lain.Shock therapie masih dilakukan terutama dengan aliran listrik (ECT).Therapie kerja masih tetap dilaksanakan
Perkembangan keperawatan di Indonesia dipengaruhi oleh kondisi social dan ekonomi yaitu penjajahan pemerintahan colonial Belanda, Inggris dan Jepang serta situasi pemerintahan Indonesia setelah Indonesia merdeka Dibedakan atas :
1. Masa sebelum kemerdekaan
Masa penjajahan belanda I Pada masa ini perawat berasal dari penduduk pribumi yang disebut VELPLEGEK dengan sebutan zieken oppaser sebagai penjaga rumah sakit. usaha pemerintahan Belanda dibidang kesehatan adalah :
• Mendirikan rumah sakit I Binnen Hospital di Jakarta pada tahun 1799
• Mendirikan rumah sakit II Butten Hospital
• Membentuk dinas kesehatan tentara (military gezond herds dients)
• Membentu Dinas Kesehatan Rakyat (Burgerlijke gezandherds dienst)

Zaman Penjajahan Inggris
Gubernur jendral Rafles sangat memperhatikan rakyat semboyan :Kesehatan adalah milik manusia. Usaha-usahanya dibidang kesehatan :
• Pencacaran secara umum
• Membenahi cara perawatan pasien dengan gangguan jiwa
• Memperhatikan kesehatan pada para tawanan

Zaman Penjajahan Jepang
Menyebabkan perkembangan keperawatan mengalami kemunduran yang juga merupakan zaman kegelapan dunia keperawatan di Indonesia. Kemunduran-kemunduran ini terlihat pada
• pekerjaan perawat dikerjakan oleh orang-orang yang tidak terdidik,
• Pimpinan RS diambil alih oleh orang-orang jepang,
• Obat-obatan sangat kurang
• Wabah penyakit terjadi dimana-mana.





















BAB III
PENUTUP


KESIMPULAN
Keperawatan lahir sejak naluriah keperawatan lahir bersamaan dengan penciptaan manusia perkembangan keperawatan dipengaruhi dengan semakin maju peradaban manusia maka semakin berkembang keperawatan. dan pengobatan zaman purba Orang-orang pada zaman dahulu hidup dalam keadaan primitive.Namun demikian mereka sudah mampu sedikit pengetahuan dan kecakapan dalam merawat atau mengobati. Pekerjaan "merawat" dikerjakan berdasarkan naluri (instink) à naluri binatang à "mother instinct" (naluri keibuan) yang merupakan suatu naluri dalam yang bersendi pada pemeliharaan jenis (melindungi anak, merawat orang lemah). keibuan kemudian bergeser kezaman purba diman zaman ini orang masih percaya pada suatu tantangan adanya kekuatan mistis yang dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan manusia, kepercayaan ini di kenal dengan nama anisme, diman seseorang yang sakit dapat disebabkan karna kekuatan alam atau pengaruh kekuatan gaib sehingga timbul keyakinan bahwa jiwa yang jahat akan dapat menimbulkan kesakitan dan jiwa yang sehat dapat menimbulkan keasehatan atau kesejahteraan.
SARAN
Untuk menjadi perawat yang profesional kita harus tahu tentang sejarah perkembangan keperawatan, karena dengan mengetahui sejarah perkembangankeperawatan kita dapat mengetahui sampai dimana perkembangan keperawatan pada masa dahulu dan dimana letak kekurangan dan kelebihan keperawatan pada masa dahulu sehingga kita bisa memperbaiki kekurangan tersebut hingga menjadi lebih baik .












































DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Hidayat,A. Aziz alimul.2004.Pengantar Konsep Dasar Keperawatan.
Jakarta:Salemba Medika
www.google.Sejarah perkembangan keperawatan pendidikan dan pelayana keperawatan pada zaman kuno.com

Saturday, July 4, 2009

Baltic Sea

Baltic Sea

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For other uses, see Baltic (disambiguation).

Coordinates: [show location on an interactive map] 59°30′N 23°00′E / 59.5°N 23°E / 59.5; 23
Map of the Baltic Sea.
Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and the Little Belt. The Kattegat continues through Skagerrak into the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Baltic Sea is artificially linked to the White Sea by the White Sea Canal and to the North Sea by the Kiel Canal. The Baltic is bordered on its northern edge by the Gulf of Bothnia, its northeastern edge by the Gulf of Finland, and on its eastern edge by the Gulf of Riga.

Popular culture

Popular culture
This section requires expansion.

The Caribbean is the setting for countless literary efforts often related to piracy and swashbuckling. One memorable work of pulp fiction has in its title a geographic feature unique in its way to the islands: Fear Cay, the eleventh Doc Savage adventure by Lester Dent. Many James Bond adventures were set there. It is also well known as the location of the Pirates of the Caribbean films, featuring Port Royal. Less swashbuckling, but not lacking in man-against-the-sea exploits, is Peter Matthiessen's Far Tortuga (1975), which chronicles the adventures of a turtling crew in the late 1960's. The book's prose, informed by the Caribbean's boundless, sun-bleached expanses, is sparse, and challengingly so: Only one metaphor is used, and all dialogue unfolds unencumbered by attribution, as Matthiessen paints a picture of humanity literally and figuratively adrift.

Economy and human activity

Economy and human activity
A Caribbean beach in Isla Margarita, Venezuela.

The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million tons per year.[11] The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for half a million metric tons of fish a year.[12]

Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution, Pan American Health Organization estimating in 1993 that only about 10% of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the Sea.[11]

The Caribbean region supports a large tourist industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991–1992) about 8 million Cruise Ship tourists.

weather

Weather
Average sea surface temperatures for the Caribbean Atlantic Ocean (25 August-27 August 2005.[9]

The Caribbean weather is influenced by the Gulf Stream and Humboldt Current ocean currents.[10] The tropical location of the sea helps the water to maintain a warm temperature ranging from the low of 70 to mid-80 degrees Fahrenheit by the season.

The Caribbean is a focal area for many hurricanes within the Western Hemisphere. A series of low pressure systems develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic Ocean. While most of these systems do not become tropical storms, some do. The tropical storms can develop into Atlantic hurricanes, often in the low pressure areas of the eastern Caribbean. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June to December, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around 9 tropical storms form each year, with 5 reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.

Every year hurricanes represent a potential threat to the islands of the Caribbean, due to the extremely destructive nature of these powerful weather systems. Coral reefs can easily be damaged by violent wave action, and can be destroyed when a hurricane dumps sand or mud onto the a reef . When this happens, the coral organisms are smothered and the reef dies and ultimately breaks apart.
 

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